Where Did You See Art Incorporated Into the Idea of Infectious Diseases?

Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness

Medicine

Statue of Asclepius, the Greek god of medicine, holding the symbolic Rod of Asclepius with its coiled snake
Specialist	Medical specialty
Glossary	Glossary of medicine

Medicine is the science^[1] and practice^[ii] of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Contemporary medicine applies biomedical sciences, biomedical research, genetics, and medical technology to diagnose, treat, and prevent injury and disease, typically through pharmaceuticals or surgery, but also through therapies as various as psychotherapy, external splints and traction, medical devices, biologics, and ionizing radiations, amongst others.^[3]

Medicine has been expert since prehistoric times, during most of which it was an art (an expanse of skill and knowledge) frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a medicine man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher and physician would apply bloodletting according to the theories of humorism. In recent centuries, since the appearance of modern science, most medicine has go a combination of art and scientific discipline (both basic and applied, nether the umbrella of medical science). While stitching technique for sutures is an fine art learned through practice, the noesis of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science.

Prescientific forms of medicine are at present known as traditional medicine or folk medicine, which remains ordinarily used in the absence of scientific medicine, and are thus called alternative medicine. Alternative treatments outside of scientific medicine having safety and efficacy concerns are termed quackery.

Etymology [edit]

Medicine (, ) is the science and practice of the diagnosis, prognosis, handling, and prevention of disease.^{[4] [5]} The word "medicine" is derived from Latin medicus, pregnant "a doc".^{[vi] [seven]}

Clinical practice [edit]

Medical availability and clinical practice varies across the globe due to regional differences in culture and engineering. Modern scientific medicine is highly developed in the Western earth, while in developing countries such as parts of Africa or Asia, the population may rely more heavily on traditional medicine with limited prove and efficacy and no required formal preparation for practitioners.^[8]

In the developed world, testify-based medicine is not universally used in clinical do; for example, a 2007 survey of literature reviews found that near 49% of the interventions lacked sufficient testify to back up either benefit or harm.^[9]

In modernistic clinical practice, physicians and doctor assistants personally assess patients in social club to diagnose, prognose, treat, and forbid affliction using clinical judgment. The doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an test of the patient's medical history and medical record, followed by a medical interview^[10] and a physical exam. Basic diagnostic medical devices (eastward.g. stethoscope, tongue depressor) are typically used. After examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doc may guild medical tests (e.g. blood tests), take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided. During the run into, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is and then documented in the medical record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions.^[11] Follow-ups may be shorter simply follow the aforementioned general process, and specialists follow a similar process. The diagnosis and handling may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complication of the outcome.

The components of the medical interview^[ten] and encounter are:

• Chief complaint (CC): the reason for the current medical visit. These are the 'symptoms.' They are in the patient's ain words and are recorded forth with the duration of each 1. As well called 'primary concern' or 'presenting complaint'.
• History of present illness (HPI): the chronological order of events of symptoms and farther clarification of each symptom. Distinguishable from history of previous illness, ofttimes called past medical history (PMH). Medical history comprises HPI and PMH.
• Current activity: occupation, hobbies, what the patient really does.
• Medications (Rx): what drugs the patient takes including prescribed, over-the-counter, and home remedies, as well as alternative and herbal medicines or remedies. Allergies are also recorded.
• Past medical history (PMH/PMHx): concurrent medical problems, past hospitalizations and operations, injuries, by infectious diseases or vaccinations, history of known allergies.
• Social history (SH): birthplace, residences, marital history, social and economical status, habits (including diet, medications, tobacco, alcohol).
• Family unit history (FH): listing of diseases in the family that may impact the patient. A family unit tree is sometimes used.
• Review of systems (ROS) or systems inquiry: a set of additional questions to enquire, which may be missed on HPI: a general enquiry (have you noticed any weight loss, change in sleep quality, fevers, lumps and bumps? etc.), followed past questions on the body's chief organ systems (heart, lungs, digestive tract, urinary tract, etc.).

The concrete examination is the examination of the patient for medical signs of disease, which are objective and appreciable, in contrast to symptoms that are volunteered past the patient and non necessarily objectively observable.^[12] The healthcare provider uses sight, hearing, touch, and sometimes smell (e.thousand., in infection, uremia, diabetic ketoacidosis). Iv deportment are the footing of physical examination: inspection, palpation (experience), percussion (tap to determine resonance characteristics), and auscultation (listen), generally in that order although auscultation occurs prior to percussion and palpation for abdominal assessments.^[13]

The clinical exam involves the study of:^[fourteen]

• Vital signs including height, weight, torso temperature, blood pressure, pulse, respiration charge per unit, and hemoglobin oxygen saturation^[14]
• General appearance of the patient and specific indicators of illness (nutritional status, presence of jaundice, pallor or clubbing)
• Skin
• Caput, eye, ear, olfactory organ, and throat (HEENT)^[xiv]
• Cardiovascular (centre and claret vessels)
• Respiratory (large airways and lungs)^[fourteen]
• Belly and rectum
• Ballocks (and pregnancy if the patient is or could be pregnant)
• Musculoskeletal (including spine and extremities)
• Neurological (consciousness, awareness, encephalon, vision, cranial nerves, spinal cord and peripheral fretfulness)
• Psychiatric (orientation, mental country, mood, evidence of aberrant perception or idea).

It is to probable focus on areas of interest highlighted in the medical history and may not include everything listed to a higher place.

The treatment plan may include ordering additional medical laboratory tests and medical imaging studies, starting therapy, referral to a specialist, or watchful ascertainment. Follow-up may exist brash. Depending upon the wellness insurance program and the managed care organization, diverse forms of "utilization review", such as prior authorization of tests, may place barriers on accessing expensive services.^[15]

The medical controlling (MDM) procedure involves analysis and synthesis of all the to a higher place data to come up up with a list of possible diagnoses (the differential diagnoses), along with an idea of what needs to be washed to obtain a definitive diagnosis that would explain the patient's problem.

On subsequent visits, the process may be repeated in an abbreviated way to obtain any new history, symptoms, physical findings, and lab or imaging results or specialist consultations.

Institutions [edit]

Gimmicky medicine is in general conducted within health care systems. Legal, credentialing and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations, such every bit churches. The characteristics of any given health intendance organisation have significant affect on the way medical care is provided.

From ancient times, Christian accent on practical charity gave ascent to the evolution of systematic nursing and hospitals and the Catholic Church today remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the world.^[16] Avant-garde industrial countries (with the exception of the Usa)^{[17] [18]} and many developing countries provide medical services through a system of universal health intendance that aims to guarantee care for all through a single-payer wellness care organization, or compulsory private or co-operative wellness insurance. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. Commitment may exist via private medical practices or by state-owned hospitals and clinics, or by charities, most commonly by a combination of all 3.

Most tribal societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population every bit a whole. In such societies, healthcare is available to those that can beget to pay for it or accept cocky-insured it (either direct or every bit part of an employment contract) or who may exist covered by care financed by the government or tribe direct.

Transparency of information is some other cistron defining a delivery system. Access to information on weather condition, treatments, quality, and pricing greatly affects the choice by patients/consumers and, therefore, the incentives of medical professionals. While the US healthcare system has come up nether fire for lack of openness,^[nineteen] new legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between the demand for transparency on the one paw and such bug equally patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of data for commercial gain on the other.

The health professionals who provide care in medicine comprise multiple professions such as medics, nurses, physio therapists, and psychologists. These professions will have their own upstanding standards, professional teaching, and bodies. The medical profession have been conceptualized from a sociological perspective.^[20]

Delivery [edit]

Provision of medical care is classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary care categories.^[21]

Primary care medical services are provided past physicians, md assistants, nurse practitioners, or other health professionals who take showtime contact with a patient seeking medical handling or care.^[22] These occur in physician offices, clinics, nursing homes, schools, home visits, and other places shut to patients. About 90% of medical visits can exist treated by the primary care provider. These include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses, preventive care and wellness education for all ages and both sexes.

Secondary care medical services are provided past medical specialists in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who outset diagnosed or treated the patient.^[23] Referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both ambulatory intendance and inpatient services, Emergency departments, intensive care medicine, surgery services, physical therapy, labor and commitment, endoscopy units, diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice centers, etc. Some principal intendance providers may also accept care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care setting.

3rd care medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals. These include trauma centers, fire treatment centers, advanced neonatology unit services, organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy, radiations oncology, etc.

Modern medical care as well depends on information – still delivered in many health care settings on newspaper records, but increasingly nowadays past electronic ways.

In low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average person. International healthcare policy researchers take advocated that "user fees" be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers remain.^[24]

Separation of prescribing and dispensing is a do in medicine and pharmacy in which the physician who provides a medical prescription is contained from the pharmacist who provides the prescription drug. In the Western world in that location are centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries, it is traditional for physicians to likewise provide drugs.^[25]

Branches [edit]

Drawing past Marguerite Martyn (1918) of a visiting nurse in St. Louis, Missouri, with medicine and babies

Working together as an interdisciplinary team, many highly trained wellness professionals also medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modernistic wellness care. Examples include: nurses, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, laboratory scientists, pharmacists, podiatrists, physiotherapists, respiratory therapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, radiographers, dietitians, and bioengineers, medical physics, surgeons, surgeon's assistant, surgical technologist.

The telescopic and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry, while considered by some a split discipline from medicine, is a medical field.

A patient admitted to the hospital is usually nether the care of a specific team based on their chief presenting problem, eastward.1000., the cardiology squad, who so may interact with other specialties, e.g., surgical, radiology, to assist diagnose or care for the main trouble or whatever subsequent complications/developments.

Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations into certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are variations from country to country regarding which specialties sure subspecialties are in.

The chief branches of medicine are:

• Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every doctor is educated in, and some return to in biomedical research
• Medical specialties
• Interdisciplinary fields, where dissimilar medical specialties are mixed to function in certain occasions.

Bones sciences [edit]

• Anatomy is the study of the physical structure of organisms. In contrast to macroscopic or gross anatomy, cytology and histology are concerned with microscopic structures.
• Biochemistry is the study of the chemical science taking place in living organisms, peculiarly the structure and function of their chemic components.
• Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of biological systems by ways of the methods of Mechanics.
• Biostatistics is the application of statistics to biological fields in the broadest sense. A knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the planning, evaluation, and interpretation of medical enquiry. Information technology is besides fundamental to epidemiology and testify-based medicine.
• Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physics and physical chemistry to report biological systems.
• Cytology is the microscopic study of individual cells.

• Embryology is the study of the early development of organisms.
• Endocrinology is the report of hormones and their upshot throughout the body of animals.
• Epidemiology is the written report of the demographics of illness processes, and includes, simply is not express to, the study of epidemics.
• Genetics is the study of genes, and their role in biological inheritance.
• Histology is the study of the structures of biological tissues by light microscopy, electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry.
• Immunology is the study of the allowed system, which includes the innate and adaptive immune system in humans, for example.
• Lifestyle medicine is the written report of the chronic weather, and how to prevent, care for and reverse them.
• Medical physics is the study of the applications of physics principles in medicine.
• Microbiology is the report of microorganisms, including protozoa, bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
• Molecular biology is the report of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic material.
• Neuroscience includes those disciplines of scientific discipline that are related to the study of the nervous system. A main focus of neuroscience is the biology and physiology of the human brain and spinal cord. Some related clinical specialties include neurology, neurosurgery and psychiatry.
• Nutrition science (theoretical focus) and dietetics (practical focus) is the report of the relationship of food and drink to health and disease, particularly in determining an optimal diet. Medical nutrition therapy is done by dietitians and is prescribed for diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, weight and eating disorders, allergies, malnutrition, and neoplastic diseases.
• Pathology as a scientific discipline is the written report of disease—the causes, course, progression and resolution thereof.
• Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their actions.
• Gynecology is the report of female person reproductive system.
• Photobiology is the study of the interactions between not-ionizing radiations and living organisms.
• Physiology is the report of the normal operation of the trunk and the underlying regulatory mechanisms.
• Radiobiology is the written report of the interactions between ionizing radiations and living organisms.
• Toxicology is the written report of hazardous effects of drugs and poisons.

Specialties [edit]

In the broadest pregnant of "medicine", there are many different specialties. In the UK, virtually specialities have their own body or college, which has its own archway examination. These are collectively known as the Regal Colleges, although not all currently utilise the term "Royal". The development of a speciality is frequently driven past new engineering (such every bit the evolution of constructive anaesthetics) or ways of working (such as emergency departments); the new specialty leads to the formation of a unifying body of doctors and the prestige of administering their own examination.

Inside medical circles, specialities usually fit into i of two wide categories: "Medicine" and "Surgery". "Medicine" refers to the exercise of non-operative medicine, and most of its subspecialties require preliminary training in Internal Medicine. In the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, this was traditionally evidenced past passing the examination for the Membership of the Purple Higher of Physicians (MRCP) or the equivalent higher in Scotland or Ireland. "Surgery" refers to the practice of operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this area require preliminary grooming in Full general Surgery, which in the United kingdom leads to membership of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (MRCS). At present, some specialties of medicine practice not fit easily into either of these categories, such every bit radiology, pathology, or anesthesia. Well-nigh of these take branched from one or other of the two camps to a higher place; for example anaesthesia developed get-go as a faculty of the Majestic Higher of Surgeons (for which MRCS/FRCS would have been required) before becoming the Royal College of Anaesthetists and membership of the college is attained by sitting for the examination of the Fellowship of the Royal College of Anesthetists (FRCA).

Surgical specialty [edit]

Surgery is an aboriginal medical specialty that uses operative transmission and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate or treat a pathological condition such as affliction or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance or to repair unwanted ruptured areas (for example, a perforated ear drum). Surgeons must likewise manage pre-operative, mail-operative, and potential surgical candidates on the hospital wards. Surgery has many sub-specialties, including general surgery,^[26] ophthalmic surgery,^[26] cardiovascular surgery, colorectal surgery,^[26] neurosurgery,^[26] oral and maxillofacial surgery,^[26] oncologic surgery,^[26] orthopedic surgery,^[26] otolaryngology,^[26] plastic surgery,^[26] podiatric surgery, transplant surgery, trauma surgery,^[26] urology,^[26] vascular surgery,^[26] and pediatric surgery.^[26] In some centers, anesthesiology is role of the sectionalization of surgery (for historical and logistical reasons), although information technology is not a surgical discipline. Other medical specialties may use surgical procedures, such every bit ophthalmology and dermatology, but are not considered surgical sub-specialties per se.

Surgical training in the U.S. requires a minimum of five years of residency after medical school. Sub-specialties of surgery oft require seven or more years. In improver, fellowships can final an boosted ane to three years. Because post-residency fellowships can be competitive, many trainees devote two additional years to enquiry. Thus in some cases surgical training will not finish until more than a decade after medical schoolhouse. Furthermore, surgical preparation can be very difficult and time-consuming.

Internal medicine specialty [edit]

Internal medicine is the medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of adult diseases.^[27] According to some sources, an emphasis on internal structures is implied.^[28] In North America, specialists in internal medicine are ordinarily called "internists". Elsewhere, especially in Republic nations, such specialists are often called physicians.^[29] These terms, internist or physician (in the narrow sense, common outside N America), by and large exclude practitioners of gynecology and obstetrics, pathology, psychiatry, and especially surgery and its subspecialities.

Because their patients are often seriously ill or require complex investigations, internists do much of their piece of work in hospitals. Formerly, many internists were not subspecialized; such general physicians would see any complex nonsurgical problem; this style of practice has become much less mutual. In modern urban practice, almost internists are subspecialists: that is, they generally limit their medical practice to issues of one organ system or to i particular area of medical cognition. For example, gastroenterologists and nephrologists specialize respectively in diseases of the gut and the kidneys.^[30]

In the Commonwealth of Nations and some other countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are likewise described every bit specialist physicians (or internists) who have subspecialized by historic period of patient rather than by organ system. Elsewhere, specially in North America, general pediatrics is ofttimes a grade of principal intendance.

There are many subspecialities (or subdisciplines) of internal medicine:

• Angiology/Vascular Medicine
• Bariatrics
• Cardiology
• Critical intendance medicine
• Endocrinology
• Gastroenterology
• Elderliness
• Hematology
• Hepatology
• Infectious disease
• Nephrology
• Neurology
• Oncology
• Pediatrics
• Pulmonology/Pneumology/Respirology/chest medicine
• Rheumatology
• Sports Medicine

Training in internal medicine (equally opposed to surgical training), varies considerably beyond the earth: encounter the articles on medical education and physician for more details. In North America, information technology requires at least three years of residency training after medical school, which tin and so exist followed past a one- to three-year fellowship in the subspecialties listed above. In full general, resident piece of work hours in medicine are less than those in surgery, averaging about 60 hours per week in the US. This difference does not apply in the UK where all doctors are now required past law to work less than 48 hours per week on average.

Diagnostic specialties [edit]

• Clinical laboratory sciences are the clinical diagnostic services that apply laboratory technique to diagnosis and direction of patients. In the United States, these services are supervised by a pathologist. The personnel that work in these medical laboratory departments are technically trained staff who do non concord medical degrees, but who ordinarily hold an undergraduate medical technology caste, who actually perform the tests, assays, and procedures needed for providing the specific services. Subspecialties include transfusion medicine, cellular pathology, clinical chemistry, hematology, clinical microbiology and clinical immunology.
• Pathology equally a medical specialty is the branch of medicine that deals with the study of diseases and the morphologic, physiologic changes produced by them. As a diagnostic specialty, pathology tin be considered the basis of modern scientific medical knowledge and plays a large office in testify-based medicine. Many modernistic molecular tests such every bit menses cytometry, polymerase concatenation reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry, cytogenetics, gene rearrangements studies and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) fall within the territory of pathology.
• Diagnostic radiology is concerned with imaging of the body, east.g. by x-rays, x-ray computed tomography, ultrasonography, and nuclear magnetic resonance tomography. Interventional radiologists can access areas in the body nether imaging for an intervention or diagnostic sampling.
• Nuclear medicine is concerned with studying man organ systems by administering radiolabelled substances (radiopharmaceuticals) to the trunk, which tin so be imaged exterior the body by a gamma camera or a PET scanner. Each radiopharmaceutical consists of two parts: a tracer that is specific for the function nether study (e.g., neurotransmitter pathway, metabolic pathway, blood flow, or other), and a radionuclide (usually either a gamma-emitter or a positron emitter). There is a caste of overlap between nuclear medicine and radiology, equally evidenced by the emergence of combined devices such as the PET/CT scanner.
• Clinical neurophysiology is concerned with testing the physiology or function of the cardinal and peripheral aspects of the nervous system. These kinds of tests can be divided into recordings of: (i) spontaneous or continuously running electrical activity, or (two) stimulus evoked responses. Subspecialties include electroencephalography, electromyography, evoked potential, nerve conduction report and polysomnography. Sometimes these tests are performed past techs without a medical degree, only the interpretation of these tests is done past a medical professional.

Other major specialties [edit]

The post-obit are some major medical specialties that exercise not direct fit into whatever of the above-mentioned groups:

• Anesthesiology (also known equally anaesthetics): concerned with the perioperative direction of the surgical patient. The anesthesiologist's role during surgery is to forbid derangement in the vital organs' (i.east. brain, heart, kidneys) functions and postoperative hurting. Outside of the operating room, the anesthesiology physician also serves the same function in the labor and delivery ward, and some are specialized in critical medicine.
• Dermatology is concerned with the pare and its diseases. In the UK, dermatology is a subspecialty of general medicine.
• Emergency medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of astute or life-threatening atmospheric condition, including trauma, surgical, medical, pediatric, and psychiatric emergencies.
• Family medicine, family unit practise, general practice or primary care is, in many countries, the start port-of-call for patients with non-emergency medical bug. Family physicians often provide services across a wide range of settings including office based practices, emergency department coverage, inpatient care, and nursing home care.

• Obstetrics and gynecology (ofttimes abbreviated every bit OB/GYN (American English) or Obs & Gynae (British English language)) are concerned respectively with childbirth and the female reproductive and associated organs. Reproductive medicine and fertility medicine are generally expert past gynecological specialists.
• Medical genetics is concerned with the diagnosis and management of hereditary disorders.
• Neurology is concerned with diseases of the nervous organization. In the Britain, neurology is a subspecialty of general medicine.
• Ophthalmology is exclusively concerned with the middle and ocular adnexa, combining conservative and surgical therapy.
• Pediatrics (AE) or paediatrics (BE) is devoted to the care of infants, children, and adolescents. Similar internal medicine, at that place are many pediatric subspecialties for specific age ranges, organ systems, disease classes, and sites of care delivery.
• Pharmaceutical medicine is the medical scientific discipline concerned with the discovery, development, evaluation, registration, monitoring and medical aspects of marketing of medicines for the do good of patients and public health.
• Concrete medicine and rehabilitation (or physiatry) is concerned with functional comeback after injury, illness, or congenital disorders.
• Podiatric medicine is the study of, diagnosis, and medical & surgical treatment of disorders of the human foot, talocrural joint, lower limb, hip and lower dorsum.
• Psychiatry is the branch of medicine concerned with the bio-psycho-social study of the etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of cerebral, perceptual, emotional and behavioral disorders. Related fields include psychotherapy and clinical psychology.
• Preventive medicine is the co-operative of medicine concerned with preventing disease.
  • Community health or public health is an aspect of health services concerned with threats to the overall wellness of a community based on population health analysis.

Interdisciplinary fields [edit]

Some interdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine include:

• Aerospace medicine deals with medical problems related to flying and space travel.
• Habit medicine deals with the treatment of addiction.
• Medical ethics deals with upstanding and moral principles that use values and judgments to the practice of medicine.
• Biomedical Engineering is a field dealing with the application of applied science principles to medical practice.
• Clinical pharmacology is concerned with how systems of therapeutics interact with patients.
• Conservation medicine studies the relationship betwixt human and fauna health, and ecology conditions. Also known as ecological medicine, ecology medicine, or medical geology.
• Disaster medicine deals with medical aspects of emergency preparedness, disaster mitigation and direction.
• Diving medicine (or hyperbaric medicine) is the prevention and handling of diving-related bug.
• Evolutionary medicine is a perspective on medicine derived through applying evolutionary theory.
• Forensic medicine deals with medical questions in legal context, such as conclusion of the fourth dimension and cause of decease, type of weapon used to inflict trauma, reconstruction of the facial features using remains of deceased (skull) thus aiding identification.
• Gender-based medicine studies the biological and physiological differences between the human being sexes and how that affects differences in illness.
• Hospice and Palliative Medicine is a relatively modern co-operative of clinical medicine that deals with hurting and symptom relief and emotional back up in patients with terminal illnesses including cancer and heart failure.
• Hospital medicine is the general medical care of hospitalized patients. Physicians whose principal professional focus is hospital medicine are called hospitalists in the United states and Canada. The term About Responsible Physician (MRP) or attending physician is as well used interchangeably to depict this role.
• Laser medicine involves the utilise of lasers in the diagnostics or treatment of diverse conditions.
• Medical humanities includes the humanities (literature, philosophy, ethics, history and religion), social science (anthropology, cultural studies, psychology, folklore), and the arts (literature, theater, film, and visual arts) and their awarding to medical educational activity and practice.
• Wellness informatics is a relatively recent field that deal with the awarding of computers and data technology to medicine.
• Nosology is the classification of diseases for various purposes.
• Nosokinetics is the science/subject area of measuring and modelling the process of care in health and social intendance systems.
• Occupational medicine is the provision of health advice to organizations and individuals to ensure that the highest standards of health and prophylactic at piece of work can be accomplished and maintained.
• Pain management (also called pain medicine, or algiatry) is the medical discipline concerned with the relief of pain.
• Pharmacogenomics is a form of individualized medicine.
• Podiatric medicine is the study of, diagnosis, and medical treatment of disorders of the pes, talocrural joint, lower limb, hip and lower dorsum.
• Sexual medicine is concerned with diagnosing, assessing and treating all disorders related to sexuality.
• Sports medicine deals with the treatment and prevention and rehabilitation of sports/do injuries such as muscle spasms, muscle tears, injuries to ligaments (ligament tears or ruptures) and their repair in athletes, amateur and professional.
• Therapeutics is the field, more commonly referenced in earlier periods of history, of the various remedies that can be used to treat disease and promote health.^[31]
• Travel medicine or emporiatrics deals with health problems of international travelers or travelers across highly dissimilar environments.
• Tropical medicine deals with the prevention and treatment of tropical diseases. Information technology is studied separately in temperate climates where those diseases are quite unfamiliar to medical practitioners and their local clinical needs.
• Urgent intendance focuses on delivery of unscheduled, walk-in care outside of the hospital emergency department for injuries and illnesses that are not astringent plenty to require care in an emergency department. In some jurisdictions this function is combined with the emergency department.
• Veterinary medicine; veterinarians apply similar techniques equally physicians to the care of animals.
• Wilderness medicine entails the practice of medicine in the wild, where conventional medical facilities may not exist available.
• Many other health science fields, e.g. dietetics

Didactics and legal controls [edit]

Medical students learning nigh stitches

Medical education and training varies effectually the world. Information technology typically involves entry level teaching at a university medical school, followed by a period of supervised practice or internship, or residency. This tin be followed by postgraduate vocational training. A variety of teaching methods have been employed in medical didactics, still itself a focus of agile enquiry. In Canada and the The states of America, a Doctor of Medicine caste, oft abbreviated M.D., or a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine caste, often abbreviated as D.O. and unique to the United States, must be completed in and delivered from a recognized university.

Since knowledge, techniques, and medical technology continue to evolve at a rapid rate, many regulatory authorities crave continuing medical teaching. Medical practitioners upgrade their noesis in various means, including medical journals, seminars, conferences, and online programs. A database of objectives covering medical knowledge, as suggested by national societies across the U.s., tin be searched at http://data.medobjectives.marian.edu/.^[32]

In well-nigh countries, it is a legal requirement for a medical doctor to exist licensed or registered. In general, this entails a medical degree from a university and accreditation past a medical board or an equivalent national organization, which may ask the bidder to laissez passer exams. This restricts the considerable legal authority of the medical profession to physicians that are trained and qualified by national standards. Information technology is besides intended as an assurance to patients and equally a safeguard confronting charlatans that practise inadequate medicine for personal proceeds. While the laws generally require medical doctors to be trained in "testify based", Western, or Hippocratic Medicine, they are not intended to discourage different paradigms of health.

In the European Spousal relationship, the profession of doctor of medicine is regulated. A profession is said to exist regulated when access and exercise is subject to the possession of a specific professional qualification. The regulated professions database contains a list of regulated professions for dr. of medicine in the Eu member states, EEA countries and Switzerland. This listing is covered by the Directive 2005/36/EC.

Doctors who are negligent or intentionally harmful in their care of patients can face charges of medical malpractice and be discipline to ceremonious, criminal, or professional sanctions.

Medical ethics [edit]

Medical ideals is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. Equally a scholarly discipline, medical ideals encompasses its practical awarding in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and folklore. Six of the values that usually apply to medical ethics discussions are:

• autonomy – the patient has the right to turn down or choose their treatment. (Voluntas aegroti suprema lex.)
• beneficence – a practitioner should deed in the best interest of the patient. (Salus aegroti suprema lex.)
• justice – concerns the distribution of deficient health resource, and the decision of who gets what treatment (fairness and equality).
• non-maleficence – "get-go, do no impairment" (primum non-nocere).
• respect for persons – the patient (and the person treating the patient) accept the correct to be treated with dignity.
• truthfulness and honesty – the concept of informed consent has increased in importance since the historical events of the Doctors' Trial of the Nuremberg trials, Tuskegee syphilis experiment, and others.

Values such as these do not give answers as to how to handle a detail situation, just provide a useful framework for understanding conflicts. When moral values are in conflict, the upshot may be an upstanding dilemma or crisis. Sometimes, no good solution to a dilemma in medical ideals exists, and occasionally, the values of the medical community (i.e., the hospital and its staff) conflict with the values of the individual patient, family, or larger non-medical customs. Conflicts tin also arise between health intendance providers, or amid family unit members. For example, some argue that the principles of autonomy and beneficence clash when patients decline blood transfusions, considering them life-saving; and truth-telling was non emphasized to a large extent before the HIV era.

History [edit]

Statuette of aboriginal Egyptian physician Imhotep, the starting time physician from antiquity known by name

Ancient world [edit]

Prehistoric medicine incorporated plants (herbalism), brute parts, and minerals. In many cases these materials were used ritually every bit magical substances by priests, shamans, or medicine men. Well-known spiritual systems include animism (the notion of inanimate objects having spirits), spiritualism (an appeal to gods or communion with antecedent spirits); shamanism (the vesting of an individual with mystic powers); and divination (magically obtaining the truth). The field of medical anthropology examines the ways in which culture and guild are organized around or impacted by issues of wellness, wellness care and related problems.

Early records on medicine have been discovered from aboriginal Egyptian medicine, Babylonian Medicine, Ayurvedic medicine (in the Indian subcontinent), classical Chinese medicine (predecessor to the modern traditional Chinese medicine), and ancient Greek medicine and Roman medicine.

In Egypt, Imhotep (tertiary millennium BCE) is the outset physician in history known by name. The oldest Egyptian medical text is the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus from effectually 2000 BCE, which describes gynaecological diseases. The Edwin Smith Papyrus dating back to 1600 BCE is an early work on surgery, while the Ebers Papyrus dating back to 1500 BCE is akin to a textbook on medicine.^[33]

In Communist china, archaeological evidence of medicine in Chinese dates back to the Bronze Age Shang Dynasty, based on seeds for herbalism and tools presumed to have been used for surgery.^[34] The Huangdi Neijing, the progenitor of Chinese medicine, is a medical text written outset in the 2nd century BCE and compiled in the 3rd century.^[35]

In India, the surgeon Sushruta described numerous surgical operations, including the primeval forms of plastic surgery.^{[36] [ dubious – discuss ] [37]} Earliest records of dedicated hospitals come from Mihintale in Sri Lanka where evidence of dedicated medicinal treatment facilities for patients are found.^{[38] [39]}

In Greece, the Greek physician Hippocrates, the "father of modern medicine",^{[40] [41]} laid the foundation for a rational approach to medicine. Hippocrates introduced the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, which is still relevant and in utilise today, and was the get-go to categorize illnesses every bit acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and employ terms such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, tiptop, and convalescence".^{[42] [43]} The Greek physician Galen was besides one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient world and performed many audacious operations, including brain and eye surgeries. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the onset of the Early Middle Ages, the Greek tradition of medicine went into reject in Western Europe, although information technology continued uninterrupted in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.

Nearly of our knowledge of ancient Hebrew medicine during the 1st millennium BC comes from the Torah, i.e. the 5 Books of Moses, which contain diverse health related laws and rituals. The Hebrew contribution to the development of modern medicine started in the Byzantine Era, with the dr. Asaph the Jew.^[44]

Middle Ages [edit]

The concept of hospital as institution to offering medical intendance and possibility of a cure for the patients due to the ideals of Christian charity, rather than but merely a place to die, appeared in the Byzantine Empire.^[45]

Although the concept of uroscopy was known to Galen, he did not see the importance of using it to localize the disease. It was under the Byzantines with physicians such of Theophilus Protospatharius that they realized the potential in uroscopy to determine disease in a time when no microscope or stethoscope existed. That exercise eventually spread to the remainder of Europe.^[46]

After 750 CE, the Muslim world had the works of Hippocrates, Galen and Sushruta translated into Arabic, and Islamic physicians engaged in some pregnant medical research. Notable Islamic medical pioneers include the Persian polymath, Avicenna, who, along with Imhotep and Hippocrates, has besides been called the "father of medicine".^[47] He wrote The Canon of Medicine which became a standard medical text at many medieval European universities,^[48] considered one of the most famous books in the history of medicine.^[49] Others include Abulcasis,^[l] Avenzoar,^[51] Ibn al-Nafis,^[52] and Averroes.^[53] Persian physician Rhazes^[54] was one of the first to question the Greek theory of humorism, which still remained influential in both medieval Western and medieval Islamic medicine.^[55] Some volumes of Rhazes'due south work Al-Mansuri, namely "On Surgery" and "A General Volume on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in European universities.^[56] Additionally, he has been described as a doctor's doctor,^[57] the father of pediatrics,^{[58] [59]} and a pioneer of ophthalmology. For example, he was the first to recognize the reaction of the center'southward pupil to light.^[59] The Persian Bimaristan hospitals were an early instance of public hospitals.^{[60] [61]}

In Europe, Charlemagne decreed that a hospital should be attached to each cathedral and monastery and the historian Geoffrey Blainey likened the activities of the Catholic Church in health intendance during the Middle Ages to an early version of a welfare state: "Information technology conducted hospitals for the old and orphanages for the young; hospices for the sick of all ages; places for the lepers; and hostels or inns where pilgrims could buy a cheap bed and meal". It supplied food to the population during famine and distributed food to the poor. This welfare system the church building funded through collecting taxes on a large scale and possessing large farmlands and estates. The Benedictine order was noted for setting upwardly hospitals and infirmaries in their monasteries, growing medical herbs and becoming the chief medical care givers of their districts, as at the great Abbey of Cluny. The Church also established a network of cathedral schools and universities where medicine was studied. The Schola Medica Salernitana in Salerno, looking to the learning of Greek and Arab physicians, grew to be the finest medical school in Medieval Europe.^[62]

Siena'south Santa Maria della Scala Hospital, one of Europe's oldest hospitals. During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church established universities to revive the report of sciences, drawing on the learning of Greek and Arab physicians in the study of medicine.

However, the fourteenth and fifteenth century Blackness Decease devastated both the Heart East and Europe, and it has fifty-fifty been argued that Western Europe was generally more effective in recovering from the pandemic than the Center East.^[63] In the early modern period, important early figures in medicine and beefcake emerged in Europe, including Gabriele Falloppio and William Harvey.

The major shift in medical thinking was the gradual rejection, especially during the Black Death in the 14th and 15th centuries, of what may be called the 'traditional say-so' arroyo to science and medicine. This was the notion that because some prominent person in the past said something must be so, and so that was the way it was, and anything one observed to the contrary was an anomaly (which was paralleled by a similar shift in European order in general – run across Copernicus's rejection of Ptolemy'southward theories on astronomy). Physicians like Vesalius improved upon or disproved some of the theories from the past. The chief tomes used both by medicine students and expert physicians were Materia Medica and Pharmacopoeia.

Andreas Vesalius was the author of De humani corporis fabrica, an important volume on man beefcake.^[64] Leaner and microorganisms were first observed with a microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, initiating the scientific field microbiology.^[65] Independently from Ibn al-Nafis, Michael Servetus rediscovered the pulmonary circulation, only this discovery did non achieve the public because it was written down for the kickoff fourth dimension in the "Manuscript of Paris"^[66] in 1546, and later published in the theological work for which he paid with his life in 1553. Later this was described by Renaldus Columbus and Andrea Cesalpino. Herman Boerhaave is sometimes referred to every bit a "male parent of physiology" due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and textbook 'Institutiones medicae' (1708). Pierre Fauchard has been called "the father of modern dentistry".^[67]

Modern [edit]

Veterinary medicine was, for the first fourth dimension, truly separated from human medicine in 1761, when the French veterinarian Claude Bourgelat founded the world's kickoff veterinarian school in Lyon, France. Earlier this, medical doctors treated both humans and other animals.

Modern scientific biomedical enquiry (where results are testable and reproducible) began to supercede early on Western traditions based on herbalism, the Greek "4 humours" and other such pre-modern notions. The modernistic era really began with Edward Jenner'due south discovery of the smallpox vaccine at the finish of the 18th century (inspired by the method of inoculation earlier practiced in Asia), Robert Koch's discoveries around 1880 of the transmission of disease past bacteria, and then the discovery of antibiotics around 1900.

The postal service-18th century modernity period brought more groundbreaking researchers from Europe. From Germany and Austria, doctors Rudolf Virchow, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Karl Landsteiner and Otto Loewi made notable contributions. In the United Kingdom, Alexander Fleming, Joseph Lister, Francis Crick and Florence Nightingale are considered of import. Spanish doctor Santiago Ramón y Cajal is considered the father of modern neuroscience.

From New Zealand and Australia came Maurice Wilkins, Howard Florey, and Frank Macfarlane Burnet.

Others that did significant work include William Williams Keen, William Coley, James D. Watson (United states); Salvador Luria (Italy); Alexandre Yersin (Switzerland); Kitasato Shibasaburō (Japan); Jean-Martin Charcot, Claude Bernard, Paul Broca (France); Adolfo Lutz (Brazil); Nikolai Korotkov (Russia); Sir William Osler (Canada); and Harvey Cushing (U.s.).

Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin in September 1928 marks the kickoff of modern antibiotics.

As science and technology developed, medicine became more reliant upon medications. Throughout history and in Europe correct until the late 18th century, not just fauna and plant products were used as medicine, but besides human being body parts and fluids.^[68] Pharmacology developed in office from herbalism and some drugs are still derived from plants (atropine, ephedrine, warfarin, aspirin, digoxin, vinca alkaloids,^[69] taxol, hyoscine, etc.).^[lxx] Vaccines were discovered by Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur.

The kickoff antibiotic was arsphenamine (Salvarsan) discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1908 after he observed that bacteria took up toxic dyes that human cells did not. The commencement major class of antibiotics was the sulfa drugs, derived past German chemists originally from azo dyes.

Pharmacology has become increasingly sophisticated; modern biotechnology allows drugs targeted towards specific physiological processes to be developed, sometimes designed for compatibility with the body to reduce side-effects. Genomics and knowledge of homo genetics and human being evolution is having increasingly significant influence on medicine, as the causative genes of most monogenic genetic disorders accept at present been identified, and the development of techniques in molecular biological science, development, and genetics are influencing medical engineering, do and decision-making.

Testify-based medicine is a contemporary movement to plant the virtually effective algorithms of practice (ways of doing things) through the employ of systematic reviews and meta-assay. The movement is facilitated by mod global informatics, which allows as much of the bachelor evidence equally possible to be collected and analyzed according to standard protocols that are then disseminated to healthcare providers. The Cochrane Collaboration leads this movement. A 2001 review of 160 Cochrane systematic reviews revealed that, according to two readers, 21.3% of the reviews concluded insufficient evidence, 20% concluded evidence of no effect, and 22.5% ended positive outcome.^[71]

Quality, efficiency, and admission [edit]

Prove-based medicine, prevention of medical error (and other "iatrogenesis"), and avoidance of unnecessary health intendance are a priority in modern medical systems. These topics generate pregnant political and public policy attention, particularly in the U.s. where healthcare is regarded as excessively plush but population health metrics lag similar nations.^[72]

Globally, many developing countries lack access to care and access to medicines.^[73] Every bit of 2015, most wealthy developed countries provide health care to all citizens, with a few exceptions such as the United States where lack of health insurance coverage may limit access.^[74]

See also [edit]

• Culling medicine – Form of non-scientific healing
• List of causes of expiry by rate
• Listing of disorders
• List of of import publications in medicine
• Lists of diseases
• Medical aid
• Medical encyclopedia
• Medical ethics – Organisation of moral principles of the practice of medicine
• Medical equipment
• Medical nomenclature
• Medical billing – Role of the Us health system's reimbursement process
• Medical literature
• Medical malpractice – Legal cause of activeness when health professionals deviate from standards of practice harming a patient
• Medical psychology – Application of psychological principles to the practice of medicine
• Medical sociology
• Philosophy of healthcare
• Quackery – Promotion of fraudulent or ignorant medical practices
• Traditional medicine – Formalized folk medicine

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